➥ saṅkhāra:

• for saṅkhāra:
  • originated phenomenon
  • mental factor
  • karmically consequential deed
  • effort
  • aspiration
  • untranquillising factors
  • dynamic
  • activity
  • deed
• for saṅkhārakkhandha:
  • the aggregate of mental factors
• for abhisaṅkhāra:
  • karmically consequential deed
  • aspiration
  • impulsion
• for āyusaṅkhārā:
  • factors essential to life
• for iddhābhisaṅkhāra:
  • act of psychic power

Saṅkhārakkhandha: the aggregate of mental factors

Saṅkhāra has either an active or passive sense, meaning either:

1) ‘the things that are produced by a combination of co-operating factors,’ or

2) ‘factors (or forces) that function together in producing an effect.’ (Bodhi, MLDB Intro p.55).

We call these 1) ‘originated phenomena’ and 2) ‘mental factors.’ The fourth khandha is defined following the second sense:

And why do you call them mental factors

kiñca bhikkhave saṅkhāre vadetha?

They originate the originated therefore they are called mental factors.

saṅkhataṁ abhisaṅkharontī ti bhikkhave tasmā saṅkhārā ti vuccanti

And what is the originated that they originate?

Kiñca saṅkhataṁ abhisaṅkharonti

They originate

• originated bodily form into the state of bodily form

rūpaṁ rūpattāya saṅkhataṁ abhisaṅkharonti

• originated sense impression into the state of sense impression

vedanaṁ vedanattāya saṅkhataṁ abhisaṅkharonti

• originated perception into the state of perception

saññaṁ saññattāya saṅkhataṁ abhisaṅkharonti

• originated mental factors into the state of mental factors

saṅkhāre saṅkhārattāya saṅkhataṁ abhisaṅkharonti

• originated fields of sensation into the state of the fields of sensation

viññāṇaṁ viññāṇattāya saṅkhataṁ abhisaṅkharonti;

Therefore they are called mental factors. (SN iii 87)

Comment:

-ttāya indicates a neuter abstract noun in the genitive or dative case and therefore expresses the state, nature or quality of being that which is denoted by the noun (PGPL, para 581). The dative case indicates the place to which motion is directed: 'a few go to heaven'; 'he takes me to the water' (PGPL, para597.viii). I have taken this meaning here, using the dative case to indicate the result of originative activity.

Saṅkhārakkhandha is also defined in terms of cetanā and sañcetanā, as follows:

• What are mental factors (i.e. saṅkhārakkhandha)? The aggregate of intentional effort (cetanākāyā) is sixfold: intentional effort in relation to visible objects, audible objects, smellable objects, tasteable objects, tangible objects, and mentally known objects.

katame ca bhikkhave saṅkhārā. Chayime bhikkhave cetanākāyā. Rūpasañcetanā saddasañcetanā gandhasañcetanā rasasañcetanā phoṭṭhabbasañcetanā dhammasañcetanā. (SN iii 60)

For discussion on calling cetanā intentional effort, not intention, see Glossary sv Cetanā.

Passive sense: originated phenomenon

For example:

The ignorant Everyman considers bodily form to be the [absolute] Selfhood. That considering is an originated phenomenon. What is the basis, origin, object of genesis and production of that originated phenomenon? When the ignorant Everyman is affected by sense impression born of sensation and uninsightfulness into reality, craving arises. That originated phenomenon is born from that.

rūpaṁ attato samanupassati. Yā kho pana sā bhikkhave samanupassanā saṅkhāro so. So pana saṅkhāro kinnidāno kiṁsamudayo kiñjātiko kimpabhavoti. Avijjāsamphassajena bhikkhave vedayitena phuṭṭhassa assutavato puthujjanassa uppannā taṇhā. Tatojo so saṅkhāro. (SN iii 96)

Activity

In some circumstances saṅkhāra means activity, not necessarily intentional:

• In-breathing and out-breathing are bodily activity. Thinking and pondering are speech activity. Perception and sense impression are mental activity.

Assāsapassāsā kho āvuso visākha kāyasaṅkhāro vitakkavicārā vacīsaṅkhāro saññā ca vedanā ca cittasaṅkhāro ti. (MN i 301)

The abhi- prefix

With acts of psychic power the abhi- prefix is applied consistently. In some words, like ‘aspiration,’ it sometimes occurs, sometimes not, and is without significance.

• Then the Blessed One performed an act of psychic power (tathārūpaṁ iddhābhisaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkhāsi) such that the brahman Brahmāyu saw that the Blessed One’s penis was enclosed in a sheath. (MN ii 143)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, originated phenomenon

Or he is unsure, doubtful, undecided about the [perfection of the] true teaching.

kaṅkhī hoti vicikicchī aniṭṭhaṅgato saddhamme

That unsureness, doubt, and undecidedness about the [perfection of the] true teaching is an originated phenomenon

yā kho pana sā bhikkhave kaṅkhitā vicikicchitā aniṭṭhaṅgatatā saddhamme saṅkhāro so. (SN iii 100)

Ānanda, I have taught the successive ending of originated phenomena.

anupubbasaṅkhārānaṁ nirodho akkhāto

For one who attains:

• first jhāna, speech is ended.

paṭhamaṁ jhānaṁ samāpannassa vācā niruddhā hoti

• second jhāna, thinking and pondering are ended.

vitakkavicārā niruddhā honti

• third jhāna, rapture is ended.

pīti niruddhā hoti

• fourth jhāna, breathing is ended.

assāsapassāsā niruddhā honti

• the state of awareness of boundless space, the perception of the refined material states of awareness is ended.

rūpasaññā niruddhā hoti

• the state of awareness of boundless consciousness, the perception of the state of awareness of boundless space is ended.

ākāsānañcāyatanasaññā niruddhā hoti

• the state of awareness of nonexistence, the perception of the state of awareness of boundless consciousness is ended.

viññāṇañcāyatanasaññā niruddhā hoti

• the ending of perception and sense impression, perception and sense impression are ended.

saññāvedayitanirodhaṁ samāpannassa saññā ca vedanā ca niruddhā honti

• For a bhikkhu whose āsavas are destroyed, attachment, hatred, and undiscernment of reality are ended.

khīṇāsavassa bhikkhuno rāgo niruddho hoti doso niruddho hoti moho niruddho hoti. (SN iv 217)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, originated phenomena

I do not have the thoughts “I have been” or “I will be.” Originated phenomena will pass away. What lamentation is there in that?

Na me hoti ahosin ti bhavissan ti na hoti me
Saṅkhārā vigamissanti tattha kā paridevanā. (Tha 715)

There is no fear for one who perceives according to reality the pure and simple origination of phenomena, and the pure and simple continuity of originated phenomena, captain.

suddhaṁ dhammasamuppādaṁ suddhaṁ saṅkhārasantatiṁ
passantassa yathābhūtaṁ na bhayaṁ hoti gāmaṇi. (Tha 716)

Now see, bhikkhus! That mountain’s name has vanished, those people have died, and that Blessed One has passed away to the Untroubled-without-residue.

Passatha bhikkhave sā cevimassa pabbatassa samaññā antarahitā. Te ca manussā kālakatā. So ca bhagavā parinibbuto.

Thus unlasting are originated phenomena, thus unenduring are originated phenomena, thus unconsoling are originated phenomena. It is time enough, bhikkhus, to be disillusioned with all originated phenomena, to be unattached to them, to be liberated from them.

Evaṁ aniccā bhikkhave saṅkhārā evaṁ addhuvā bhikkhave saṅkhārā evaṁ anassāsikā bhikkhave saṅkhārā. Yāvañcidaṁ bhikkhave alameva sabbasaṅkhāresu nibbindituṁ alaṁ virajjituṁ alaṁ vimuccituṁ. (SN ii 191)

What, Ānanda, is the perception of the unlastingness of all originated phenomena?

Katamācānanda sabbasaṅkhāresu aniccasaññā

In this regard a bhikkhu is revolted, appalled, and disgusted by all originated phenomena.

Idhānanda bhikkhu sabbasaṅkhārehi aṭṭīyati harāyati jigucchati. (AN v 111)

This is indeed a matter difficult to realise, namely the quelling of all originated phenomena, the relinquishment of the whole phenomenon of attachment, the destruction of craving, the passing away [of originated phenomena], the ending [of originated phenomena], the Untroubled.

Idampi kho ṭhānaṁ duddasaṁ yadidaṁ sabbasaṅkhārasamatho sabbūpadhipaṭinissaggo taṇhakkhayo virāgo nirodho nibbānaṁ. (DN ii 36)

But why do you assume ‘a being’? That is just your acquiescence in wrong view [of reality], Māra. This is nothing but a heap of originated phenomena. Here no being is found.

Kinnu satto ti paccesi māradiṭṭhigatannu te
Suddhasaṅkhārapuñjoyaṁ nayidha sattūpalabbhati. (SN i 135)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, mental factors

Whatever kind of mental factors there are, whether past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or sublime, far or near: this is called the aggregate of mental factors.

Yā kāci saṅkhārā atīnānāgatapaccuppannaṁ ajjhattaṁ vā bahiddhā vā oḷārikaṁ vā sukhumaṁ vā hīnaṁ vā paṇītaṁ vā yaṁ dūre santike vā ayaṁ vuccati saṅkhārakkhandho. (SN iii 101)

Unvirtuous, spiritually unwholesome factors arise with mental factors, not without mental factors. By abandoning those very mental factors, those unvirtuous, spiritually unwholesome factors do not exist.

Sasaṅkhārā bhikkhave uppajjanti pāpakā akusalā dhammā no asaṅkhārā. Tesaṁ yeva saṅkhārānaṁ pahānā evaṁ te pāpakā akusalā dhammā na honti. (AN i 82)

The Bodhisatta Vipassī dwelt contemplating the arising and disappearance of the five aggregates:… Such are mental factors; such the origination of mental factors; such the vanishing of mental factors…

Iti saṅkhārā iti saṅkhārānaṁ samudayo iti saṅkhārānaṁ atthaṅgam. (DN ii 35)

An arising of mental factors is discernable

saṅkhārānaṁ uppādo paññāyati

A disappearance is discernable

vayo paññāyati

A changeability while persisting is discernable

ṭhitassa aññathattaṁ paññāyati. (SN iii 38)

Introduction

Karmically consequential deeds are the saṅkhārā of paṭiccasamuppāda. Karmically consequential deeds are either:

1) meritorious puññaṁ

2) demeritorious apuññaṁ

3) karmically neutral āneñjaṁ

Arahants do not perform karmically consequential deeds, whether meritorious, demeritorious, or karmically neutral.

Illustration: saṅkhāra, karmically consequential deed

And what is dependent origination?

katamo ca bhikkhave paṭiccasamuppādo?

• Karmically consequential deeds arise dependent on uninsightfulness into reality.

avijjāpaccayā saṅkhārā

• The stream of consciousness arises dependent on karmically consequential deeds.

saṅkhārapaccayā viññāṇaṁ. (SN ii 2-4)

Bhikkhus, if someone who has acquiesced in uninsightfulness into reality undertakes a karmically consequential deed that is meritorious, his stream of consciousness (viññāṇaṁ) is furnished with merit;

Avijjāgatoyaṁ bhikkhave purisapuggalo puññaṁ ce saṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti puññopagaṁ hoti viññāṇaṁ.

If he undertakes a karmically consequential deed that is demeritorious, his stream of consciousness is furnished with demerit;

Apuññaṁ ce saṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti apuññopagaṁ hoti viññāṇaṁ.

If he undertakes a karmically consequential deed that is karmically neutral, his stream of consciousness is furnished with what is karmically neutral.

Āneñjaṁ ce saṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti āneñjūpagaṁ hoti viññāṇaṁ.

When a bhikkhu has abandoned uninsightfulness into reality (avijjā) and aroused insightfulness into reality (vijjā), then, with the fading away of uninsightfulness into reality and the arising of insightfulness into reality, he does not undertake a karmically consequential deed that is meritorious, demeritorious, or karmically neutral.

Yato kho bhikkhave bhikkhuno avijjā pahīṇā hoti vijjā uppannā so avijjāvirāgā vijjūppādā neva puññābhisaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti. Na apuññābhisaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti. Na āneñjābhisaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti. (SN ii 82)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, karmically consequential conduct

Three kinds of karmically consequential conduct: karmically consequential conduct that is meritorious, demeritorious, or karmically neutral

Tayo saṅkhārā: puññābhisaṅkhāro apuññābhisaṅkhāro āneñjābhisaṅkhāro. (DN iii 218)

Comment:

Saṅkhāro and abhisaṅkhāro are treated as synonyms.

Illustration: saṅkhāra, karmically consequential deed

• What do you think, bhikkhus: can a bhikkhu whose āsavas are destroyed, undertake a karmically consequential deed that is meritorious, demeritorious, or karmically neutral?

Taṁ kiṁ maññatha bhikkhave api nu kho khīṇāsavo bhikkhu puññābhisaṅkhāraṁ vā abhisaṅkhareyya apuññābhisaṅkhāraṁ vā abhisaṅkhareyya āneñjābhisaṅkhāraṁ vā abhisaṅkhareyyā ti.

• No, bhante.

• When there are utterly no karmically consequential deeds, with the ending of karmically consequential deeds, would the stream of consciousness be discerned?

Sabbaso vā pana saṅkhāresu asati saṅkhāranirodhā api nu kho viññāṇaṁ paññāyethā ti?

• No, bhante. (SN ii 83)

Comment:

Saṅkhāro and abhisaṅkhāro are treated as synonyms.

Illustration: saṅkhāra, karmically consequential deeds

Wherever the stream of consciousness is established and has [egoistically] matured, there is the appearance of immaterial-factors-and-bodily-form

Yattha patiṭṭhitaṁ viññāṇaṁ virūḷhaṁ atthi tattha nāmarūpassa avakkanti.

Where there is the appearance of immaterial-factors-and-bodily-form, there is the growth of karmically consequential deeds.

Yattha atthi nāmarūpassa avakkanti atthi tattha saṅkhārānaṁ vuddhi.

Where there is the growth of karmically consequential deeds, renewed states of individual existence and rebirth occur in the future.

Yattha atthi saṅkhārānaṁ vuddhi atthi tattha āyatiṁ punabbhavābhinibbatti. (SN ii 101)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, karmically consequential deeds

What are karmically consequential deeds (saṅkhārā)? What is the origination of karmically consequential deeds? What is the ending? What is the practice leading to the ending?

Karmically consequential deeds are threefold: by way of body, speech, and mind.

Tayome āvuso saṅkhārā: kāyasaṅkhāro vacīsaṅkhāro cittasaṅkhāro.

With the origination of uninsightfulness into reality comes the origination of karmically consequential deeds.

Avijjāsamudayā saṅkhārasamudayo.

With the ending of uninsightfulness into reality comes the ending of karmically consequential deeds.

Avijjānirodhā saṅkhāranirodho.

The noble eightfold path is the practice leading to the ending of karmically consequential deeds.

Ayameva ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo saṅkhāranirodhagāminī paṭipadā. (MN i 54)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, karmically consequential deeds

Those ascetics and Brahmanists who do not discern according to reality suffering, the origin of suffering, the ending of suffering, the practice leading to the ending of suffering

they take delight in karmically consequential deeds that lead to birth

te jātisaṁvattanikesu saṅkhāresu abhiramanti

Taking delight in such karmically consequential deeds, they perform karmically consequential deeds that lead to birth

Te jātisaṁvattanikesu saṅkhāresu abhiratā… jātisaṁvattanikepi saṅkhāre abhisaṅkharonti. (SN v 449)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, karmically consequential deed

Either on one’s own initiative or prompted by others one undertakes a karmically consequential deed by way of body, speech, or mind because of which pleasure and pain arise for oneself personally.

Sāmaṁ vā… pare vā taṁ ānanda kāyasaṅkhāraṁ… vacīsaṅkhāraṁ… manosaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharonti yaṁ paccayāssa taṁ uppajjati ajjhattaṁ sukhadukkhaṁ

Either fully conscious or not fully conscious one undertakes a karmically consequential deed by way of body, speech, or mind because of which pleasure and pain arise for oneself personally.

Sampajāno vā… asampajāno vā taṁ ānanda kāyasaṅkhāraṁ… vacīsaṅkhāraṁ… manosaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti yaṁpaccayāssa taṁ uppajjati ajjhattaṁ sukhadukkhaṁ. (SN ii 40)

Introduction: saṅkhāra and effort

Saṅkhāra is one of the factors of the four paths to psychic power (cattāro iddhipāde). And these four roads are one of the seven groups of factors conducive to enlightenment (sattannaṁ bodhipakkhiyānaṁ dhammānaṁ, DN iii 97; Iti 96). We will first review these groups.

Introduction: the seven groups of factors conducive to enlightenment

The seven groups of factors conducive to enlightenment are:

1) the [contemplation of the] four bases of mindfulness,

cattāro satipaṭṭhānā

2) the four modes of right inward striving,

cattāro sammappadhāneā

3) the four paths to psychic power,

cattāro iddhipādā

4) the five spiritual faculties,

pañcindriyāni

5) the five spiritual powers,

pañca balāni

6) the seven factors of enlightenment,

satta bojjhaṅgā

7) the noble eightfold path,

ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo. (MN ii 238)

Introduction: the four paths to psychic power

Let us consider the first of the four paths to psychic power:

• The path to psychic power involving inward collectedness based on desire accompanied by the efforts of inward striving.

chandasamādhi-padhānasaṅkhārasamannāgato iddhipādo. (SN v 268)

In the context of the four paths to psychic power, therefore, we render saṅkhāra as ‘effort.’ The efforts of inward striving are fourfold, as the following passage explains:

Introduction: the four efforts of inward striving

The four ‘efforts of inward striving’ (padhānasaṅkhārā) are:

1) To prevent the arising of unarisen spiritually unwholesome factors…

So anuppannānaṁ pāpakānaṁ akusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ anuppādāya…

2) To abandon arisen unvirtuous, spiritually unwholesome factors…

Uppannānaṁ pāpakānaṁ akusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ pahānāya…

3) To arouse unarisen spiritually wholesome factors…

Anuppannānaṁ kusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ uppādāya…

4) To maintain arisen spiritually wholesome factors, to support their nondecay, increase, expansion, and perfection through spiritual cultivation…

Uppannānaṁ kusalānaṁ dhammānaṁ ṭhitiyā asammosāya bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya bhāvanāya pāripūriyā…

… he stirs up eagerness, endeavours, applies energy, exerts his mind, and strives.

chandaṁ janeti vāyamati viriyaṁ ārabhati cittaṁ paggaṇhāti padahati.

… These are called the efforts of inward striving.

ime vuccanti padhānasaṅkhārā. (SN v 268)

Comment:

The four ‘efforts of inward striving’ (padhānasaṅkhārā) are equivalent to the ‘four modes of right inward striving,’ mentioned above (cattāro sammappadhānā: SN v 244). The ‘efforts of inward striving’ therefore simply means ‘inward striving.’ The word ‘efforts’ (saṅkhārā) is redundant.

➥ na saṅkhāra: (main article see: saṅkhāra)

Illustration: na saṅkhāra, effortless

This inward collectedness is peaceful, sublime, tranquil, and concentrated, and is effortlessly controlled, restrained, and checked

ayaṁ samādhi santo paṇīto paṭippassaddhaladdho ekodibhāvādhigato na saṅkhāraniggayhavāritāvato ti. (DN iii 278-9)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, effort

Bhikkhus, these four persons are found in the world. Which four?

1) A person liberated with effort in this very lifetime.

diṭṭheva dhamme sasaṅkhāraparinibbāyī hoti

2) A person liberated with effort after the body breaks up.

kāyassa bhedā sasaṅkhāraparinibbāyī hoti

3) A person liberated effortlessly in this very lifetime.

diṭṭheva dhamme asaṅkhāraparinibbāyī hoti

4) A person liberated effortlessly after the body breaks up.

kāyassa bhedā asaṅkhāraparinibbāyī hoti.

1) In what way is a person liberated with effort in this very lifetime?

Kathañca bhikkhave puggalo diṭṭheva dhamme sasaṅkhāraparinibbāyī hoti?

In this regard a bhikkhu is one who:

Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu

• abides contemplating the unloveliness of the body

asubhānupassī kāye viharati.

• perceives the loathsome nature of digestion.

āhāre paṭikkūlasaññī.

• perceives disgust for the whole world [of phenomena].

sabbaloke anabhiratasaññī.

• contemplates the unlastingness of all originated phenomena.

sabbasaṅkhāresu aniccānupassī.

• and for whom the perception of [the ever-present possibility of] death is well-established within himself.

maraṇasaññā kho panassa ajjhattaṁ sūpaṭṭhitā hoti.

3) In what way is a person liberated effortlessly in this very lifetime?

Kathañca bhikkhave puggalo diṭṭheva dhamme asaṅkhāraparinibbāyī hoti?

In this regard a bhikkhu is one who enters and abides in first… fourth jhāna:

Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu vivicceva kāmehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehi savitakkaṁ savicāraṁ vivekajaṁ pītisukhaṁ paṭhamaṁ jhānaṁ… catutthaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati. (AN ii 155-6)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, effort

When I confront the source of this suffering with effort, by confronting it with effort [the suffering] fades away.

imassa kho me dukkhanidānassa saṅkhāraṁ padahato saṅkhārappadhānā virāgo hoti. (MN ii 223)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, effort

If any ascetics or Brahmanists describe the entering upon this base [neither having nor lacking perception] to come about through a measure of effort regarding what is to be seen, heard, sensed, or cognised, that is declared to be a disaster for entering upon this base.

Ye hi keci bhikkhave samaṇā vā brāhmaṇā vā diṭṭhasutamutaviññātabbassa saṅkhāramattena etassa āyatanassa upasampadaṁ paññāpenti vyasanaṁ hetaṁ bhikkhave akkhāyati etassa āyatanassa upasampadāya.

For this base is not to be attained as an attainment with effort, but with a residue of effort.

Na hetaṁ bhikkhave āyatanaṁ sasaṅkhārasamāpatti pattabbamakkhāyati. Saṅkhārāvasesa samāpattipattabbametaṁ bhikkhave āyatanaṁ akkhāyati. (MN ii 231-2)

Introduction

The Buddha said he could extend his lifespan by wishing for it.

• If he wishes, the Perfect One could live for a century or for slightly more than a century.

Ākaṅkhamāno ānanda tathāgato kappaṁ vā tiṭṭheyya kappāvasesaṁ vā ti. (SN v 259)

This supports us rendering saṅkhāra in this section as ‘aspiration.’

Illustration: saṅkhāra, aspiration

‘Let me then suppress this illness with energy and live on, having firmly established the aspiration for further life.’

Yannūnāhaṁ imaṁ ābādhaṁ viriyena paṭippaṇāmetvā jīvitasaṅkhāraṁ adhiṭṭhāya vihareyyanti

Then the Blessed One suppressed his illness with energy and lived on having firmly established the aspiration for further life.

Atha kho bhagavā taṁ ābādhaṁ viriyena paṭippanāmetvā jīvitasaṅkhāraṁ adhiṭṭhāya vihāsi. (DN ii 99; SN v 152-3)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, aspiration

Then the Blessed One at the Cāpāla Shrine, mindful and fully conscious, relinquished the aspiration for further life…

Atha kho bhagavā cāpāle cetiye sato samapajāno āyusaṅkhāraṁ ossaji

Then the Blessed One spoke this inspired utterance:

Comparing the incomparable with individual existence, the Sage relinquished the aspiration for [renewed] states of individual existence.

Tulamatulañca sambhavaṁ
Bhavasaṅkhāramavassajji muni. (Uda 64; SN v 263)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, aspiration

A bhikkhu thinks, ‘Oh, that at the demise of the body at death, I might be reborn in the company of wealthy khattiyas.’ He fixes his mind on that idea, concentrates on it, and develops it

so taṁ cittaṁ dahati taṁ cittaṁ adhiṭṭhāti taṁ cittaṁ bhāveti

These aspirations and musings of his, when developed and cultivated, lead to his rebirth there

tassa te saṅkhārā ca viharā ca evaṁ bhāvitā evaṁbahulīkatā tatrūpapattiyā saṁvattanti. (MN iii 99)

➥ abhisaṅkhāra: (main article see: saṅkhāra)

Illustration: abhisaṅkhāra, aspiration

When Soṇa Koṭikaṇṇa asked to be allowed to go forth into the ascetic life, Venerable Mahākaccāna dissuaded him.

• Then whatever aspiration he had to go forth [into the ascetic life] subsided

yo ahosi pabbajjābhisaṅkhāro so paṭippassambhi. (Uda 57)

Illustration: abhisaṅkhāra, aspiration

When Sīha, the general, told Nātaputta the Nigaṇṭha that he wished to visit the Buddha, Nātaputta dissuaded him.

• Then whatever aspiration he had to go and visit the Blessed One subsided.

Atha kho sīhassa senāpatissa yo ahosi gamiyābhisaṅkhāro bhagavantaṁ dassanāya so paṭippassambhi. (AN iv 180)

➥ abhisaṅkhāro: (main article see: saṅkhāra)

Illustration: abhisaṅkhāro, aspiration

Three necessary conditions (paccayā) for the persistence of the liberation [from perceptually obscuring states] by focusing upon the unabiding [phenomenon] (animittāya cetovimuttiyā ṭhitiyā):

• not focusing upon any abiding phenomenon

sabbanimittānañca amanasikāro

• focusing upon the unabiding phenomenon,

animittāya ca dhātuyā manasikāro

• a prior aspiration [for its persistence]

pubbeva abhisaṅkhāro. (MN i 297)

Saṅkhāra in mindfulness with breathing: untranquillising factors

In this section, we will explore the meaning of saṅkhāra as it occurs in mindfulness with breathing, and will show it can be rendered as ‘untranquillising factors’ of body and mind.

Mindfulness with breathing and saṅkhāra

Mindfulness with breathing (ānāpānasati) involves training oneself as follows:

‘I will breathe in… I will breathe out:

• experiencing the whole body

sabbakāyapaṭisaṁvedī assasissāmī ti… passasissāmī ti sikkhati

• tranquillising bodily saṅkhāra

passambhayaṁ kāyasaṅkhāraṁ assasissāmī ti… passasissāmī ti sikkhati

• experiencing mental saṅkhāra

cittasaṅkhārapaṭisaṁvedī assasissāmī ti… passasissāmī ti sikkhati

• tranquillising mental saṅkhāra

passambhayaṁ cittasaṅkhāraṁ assasissāmī ti… passasissāmī ti sikkhati. (MN i 425)

To establish the meaning of saṅkhāra, let us see what factors are tranquillised in mindfulness with breathing.

Tranquillisation in mindfulness with breathing

The factors tranquillised in mindfulness with breathing are:

1) Trembling and unsteadiness:

• It is when inward collectedness by mindfulness with breathing has been developed and cultivated that no trembling or unsteadiness arises either in body or mind.

ānāpānasatisamādhissa bhikkhave bhāvitattā bahulīkatattā neva kāyassa iñjitattaṁ vā hoti phanditattaṁ vā na cittassa iñjitattaṁ vā hoti phanditattaṁ vā. (SN v 316)

2) Discursive thinking:

• Mindfulness with breathing should be developed to cut off discursive thinking

ānāpānasati bhāvetabbā vitakkupacchedāya. (Uda 37)

3) Four factors that are quelled with jhāna:

• quelling of speech in first jhāna

vācā paṭippassaddhā hoti.

• quelling of thinking and pondering in second jhāna

vitakkavicārā paṭippassaddhā honti

• quelling of rapture in third jhāna

pīti paṭippassaddhā hoti

• quelling of breathing in fourth jhāna

assāsapassāsā paṭippassaddhā. (SN iv 218)

These quotes therefore indicate seven possible meanings of the saṅkhāra that is tranquillised in mindfulness with breathing:

1) trembling of body and mind

2) unsteadiness of body and mind

3) discursive thinking

4) speech

5) thinking and pondering

6) rapture

7) breathing

Further study of the jhānas

In the search for the meaning of saṅkhāra, we will see that tranquillity is not perfected until fourth jhāna. That is, whereas the first three jhānas are reckoned as unstable, fourth jhāna is stable. This stabilisation of body and mind seems the very essence of tranquillisation, and must surely be included in our search. First we will consider the duality of tranquillity.

The duality of tranquillity

We have seen above that in mindfulness with breathing, tranquillity is applied to saṅkhāra both bodily and mentally (i.e. passambhayaṁ kāyasaṅkhāraṁ assasissāmī ti… passambhayaṁ cittasaṅkhāraṁ assasissāmī ti). This duality of tranquillity is firmly acknowledged elsewhere in the scriptures:

• There are tranquillity of body, tranquillity of mind.

Atthi bhikkhave kāyapassaddhi cittappassaddhi. (SN v 103-108)

Both aspects of tranquillity, of body and mind, result from rapture:

• For one whose mind is rapturous, the body becomes tranquil and the mind becomes tranquil, and this is the arousing of the enlightenment factor of tranquillity

Pītimanassa kāyopi passambhati cittampi passambhati. Yasmiṁ samaye bhikkhave bhikkhuno pītimanassa kāyopi passambhati cittampi passambhati passaddhisambojjhaṅgo tasmiṁ samaye bhikkhuno āraddho hoti. (SN v 68)

This implies that tranquillity would be found the first two jhānas, because:

1) first jhāna involves rapture and physical pleasure born of seclusion

vivekajaṁ pītisukhaṁ paṭhamaṁ jhānaṁ

2) second jhāna involves rapture and physical pleasure born of inward collectedness

samādhijaṁ pītisukhaṁ dutiyaṁ jhānaṁ. (MN i 454-5)

Nonetheless, perfect meditative tranquillity is not to be found in first and second jhāna, because it is definitively linked only to fourth jhāna, as follows.

Bodily tranquillity and fourth jhāna

The scriptures associate tranquillity of bodily saṅkhāra with fourth jhāna, as follows:

• How is a bhikkhu one whose bodily saṅkhāra has been tranquillised?

Kathañca bhikkhave bhikkhu passaddhakāyasaṅkhāro hoti?

… In this regard, with the abandonment of physical pleasure and pain, and following the vanishing of psychological pleasure and pain, a bhikkhu enters and abides in fourth jhāna, which is free of pleasure and pain, and [is imbued with] purified detached awareness and mindfulness.

Idhāvuso bhikkhu sukhassa ca pahānā dukkhassa ca pahānā pubbeva somanassadomanassānaṁ atthaṅgamā adukkhamasukhaṁ upekkhāsatipārisuddhiṁ catutthaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati. (DN iii 270)

The Buddha’s teaching on ‘the unstable’

This definitive association of tranquillity with fourth jhāna corresponds to the teaching on ‘the unstable.’ The Buddha said that whereas instability is associated with the first three jhānas, it is abolished in fourth jhāna, as follows:

• In this regard a bhikkhu… enters and abides in first jhāna… That, I declare, is within the unstable. What there is within the unstable? The thinking and pondering that are unended.

Idhūdāyi bhikkhu… paṭhamaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati. Idaṁ kho ahaṁ udāyi iñjitasmiṁ vadāmi. Kiñca tattha iñjitasmiṁ: yadeva tattha vitakkavicārā aniruddhā honti

… A bhikkhu enters and abides in second jhāna. That, I declare, is within the unstable. What there is within the unstable? The rapture and physical pleasure that are unended.

dutiyaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati. Idampi kho ahaṁ udāyi iñjitasmiṁ vadāmi. Kiñca tattha iñjitasmiṁ: yadeva tattha pītisukhaṁ aniruddhaṁ hoti.

… He enters and abides in third jhāna… That, I declare, is within the unstable. What there is within the unstable? The serenity with physical pleasure that is unended.

tatiyaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati. Idampi kho ahaṁ udāyi iñjitasmiṁ vadāmi. Kiñca tattha iñjitasmiṁ: yadeva tattha upekkhāsukhaṁ aniruddhaṁ hoti.

… With the abandonment of physical pleasure and pain, and following the vanishing of psychological pleasure and pain, a bhikkhu enters and abides in fourth jhāna, which is free of pleasure and pain, and [is imbued with] purified detached awareness and mindfulness. Now that, I declare, is within the not-unstable.

Idhūdāyi bhikkhu sukhassa ca pahānā dukkhassa ca pahānā pubbeva somanassadomanassānaṁ atthaṅgamā adukkhaṁ asukhaṁ upekkhāsatipārisuddhiṁ catutthaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati. Idaṁ kho ahaṁ udāyi aniñjitasmiṁ vadāmi. (MN i 454-5)

Thus any tranquillity occurring below fourth jhāna is part of ‘instability.’ Only in fourth jhāna does tranquillity reach its consummation. This gives us an eighth possible meaning for the saṅkhāra that is tranquillised in mindfulness with breathing: ‘instability.’

Conclusion: the advantages of tautology

We have said that in mindfulness with breathing, tranquillity is applied to saṅkhāra both bodily and mentally, and we have shown that there are eight possible explanations for saṅkhāra. All these meanings can be captured with a noun that produces a tautology. In other words, what is tranquillised in mindfulness with breathing is ‘untranquillising factors.’ Although saṅkhāraṁ is a singular, we treat it as a plural, because that is in accordance with this quote:

• In-breathing and out-breathing are bodily activity. Thinking and pondering are speech activity. Perception and sense impression are mental activity.

Assāsapassāsā kho āvuso visākha kāyasaṅkhāro vitakkavicārā vacīsaṅkhāro saññā ca vedanā ca cittasaṅkhāro ti. (MN i 301)

Thus the ānāpānasati formulae can be translated accordingly:

• I will breathe in… I will breathe out:

… experiencing the whole body

sabbakāyapaṭisaṁvedī assasissāmī ti… passasissāmī ti sikkhati

… tranquillising bodily untranquillising factors

passambhayaṁ kāyasaṅkhāraṁ assasissāmī ti… passasissāmī ti sikkhati

… experiencing mental untranquillising factors

cittasaṅkhārapaṭisaṁvedī assasissāmī ti… passasissāmī ti sikkhati

… tranquillising mental untranquillising factors

passambhayaṁ cittasaṅkhāraṁ assasissāmī ti… passasissāmī ti sikkhati. (MN i 425)

➥ saṅkhāro: (main article see: saṅkhāra)

Illustration: saṅkhāro, untranquillising factors

And how is a bhikkhu one whose bodily untranquillising factors have been tranquillised?

Kathañca bhikkhave bhikkhu passaddhakāyasaṅkhāro hoti?

In this regard a bhikkhu, with the abandonment of physical pleasure and pain, and following the vanishing of psychological pleasure and pain, he enters and abides in fourth jhāna, which is free of pleasure and pain, and [is imbued with] purified detached awareness and mindfulness.

Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu sukhassa ca pahānā dukkhassa ca pahānā pubbeva somanassadomanassānaṁ atthaṅgamā adukkhaṁ asukhaṁ upekkhāsatipārisuddhiṁ catutthaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati.

That is how a bhikkhu is one whose bodily untranquillising factors have been tranquillised.

Evaṁ kho bhikkhave bhikkhu passaddhakāyasaṅkhāro hoti. (AN ii 41)

➥ āyusaṅkhārā: (main article see: saṅkhāra)

Illustration: āyusaṅkhārā, factors essential to life

Friend, the factors essential to life are not things that must be experienced. If they were, then a bhikkhu who attains the ending of perception and sense impression would not be seen to emerge from it.

Na kho āvuso teva āyusaṅkhārā teva vedanīyā dhammā. Teva kho āvuso āyusaṅkhārā abhaviṁsu teva vedanīyā dhammā nayidaṁ saññāvedayitanirodhaṁ samāpannassa bhikkhuno vuṭṭhānaṁ paññāyetha. (MN i 296)

Illustration: āyusaṅkhārā, factors essential to life

As swift as are the sun and moon, and as swift as are the devas that run before the sun and moon, the factors essential to life perish even more swiftly than that.

yathā ca candimasuriyānaṁ javo yathā ca yā devatā candimasuriyānaṁ purato dhāvanti tāsaṁ devatānaṁ javo tato sīghataraṁ āyusaṅkhārā khīyanti.

Therefore, bhikkhus, you should train yourselves thus: ‘We will abide diligently applied [to the practice]’

Tasmātiha bhikkhave evaṁ sikkhitabbaṁ appamattā viharissāmā ti. (SN ii 266)

Illustration: saṅkhāra, dynamic

If there arise in a bhikkhu unvirtuous, spiritually unwholesome thoughts connected with attachment, hatred, and undiscernment of reality, then he should pay attention to the dynamic quality of those thoughts

uppajjanteva pāpakā akusalā vitakkā chandūpasaṁhitāpi dosūpasaṁhitāpi mohūpasaṁhitāpi tena bhikkhave bhikkhunā tesaṁ vitakkānaṁ vitakkasaṅkhārasaṇṭhānaṁ manasikātabbaṁ

… It is just as if a man walking fast might ask himself why he is walking fast. Why not walk slowly? Then walking slowly, why not stand? Then standing, why not sit? Then sitting, why not lie down? In this way he would substitute for each more effortful posture one that was less effortful.

Evaṁ hi so bhikkhave puriso oḷārikaṁ oḷārikaṁ iriyāpathaṁ abhinivajjetvā sukhumaṁ sukhumaṁ iriyāpathaṁ kappeyya. (MN i 120)

Notes:

• Saṇṭhāna: configuration, position; composition, nature, shape, form (PED).

➥ saṅkhārā: (main article see: saṅkhāra)

Illustration: saṅkhārā, activities

And what is the wonder of mind reading. When a bhikkhu has attained a state of inward collectedness which is void of thinking and reflecting, by encompassing a person’s mind with his mind, he knows that:

• In the way that this person’s mental activities are directed, so his mind will immediately think this thought.

yathā imassa bhoto manosaṅkhārā paṇihitā tathā imassa cittassa anantarā imaṁ nāma vitakkaṁ vitakkessatī ti. (AN i 171; DN iii 104)

Illustration: saṅkhārā, activity

• How many activities are there?

Kati panayye saṅkhārā ti

• There are these three activities: activities of body, speech, and mind.

Tayome āvuso visākha saṅkhārā: kāyasaṅkhāro vacīsaṅkhāro cittasaṅkhāro ti.

• What are these activities of body, speech, and mind?

Katamo panayye kāyasaṅkhāro katamo vacīsaṅkhāro katamo cittasaṅkhāro ti

• In-breathing and out-breathing are bodily activity. Thinking and pondering are speech activity. Perception and sense impression are mental activity.

Assāsapassāsā kho āvuso visākha kāyasaṅkhāro vitakkavicārā vacīsaṅkhāro saññā ca vedanā ca cittasaṅkhāro ti

• For what reason?

• Because in-breathing and out-breathing are bodily, bound up with the body, therefore they are bodily activity. And because first one thinks and reflects before breaking into speech, therefore thinking and pondering are speech activity. And because perception and sense impression are cognitive, bound up with cognition, therefore they are mental activity

Assāsapassāsā kho āvuso visākha kāyikā ete dhammā kāyapaṭibaddhā tasmā assāsapassāsā kāyasaṅkhāro. Pubbe kho āvuso visākha vitakketvā vicāretvā pacchā vācaṁ bhindati tasmā vitakkavicārā vacīsaṅkhāro. Saññā ca vedanā ca cetasikā ete dhammā cittapaṭibaddhā tasmā saññā ca vedanā ca cittasaṅkhāro ti. (MN i 301)

Illustration: saṅkhārā, activity

In both one who is dead and passed away, and in a bhikkhu who has attained the ending of perception and sense impression, their activities of body, speech, and mind have ceased and are quelled.

Yvāyaṁ āvuso mato kālakato… Yo cāyaṁ bhikkhu saññāvedayitanirodhaṁ samāpanno tassapi kāyasaṅkhārā niruddhā paṭippassaddhā vacīsaṅkhārā niruddhā paṭippassaddhā cittasaṅkhārā niruddhā paṭippassaddhā. (MN i 296)

Illustration: saṅkhārā, deeds

In this regard, some person’s morally unrefined deeds of body, speech, and mind are unquelled.

idhekaccassa oḷārikā kāyasaṅkhārā appaṭippassaddhā honti oḷārikā vacīsaṅkhārā appaṭippassaddhā honti oḷārikā cittasaṅkhārā appaṭippassaddhā honti. (DN ii 214-5)

➥ iddhābhisaṅkhāraṁ: (main article see: saṅkhāra)

Illustration: iddhābhisaṅkhāraṁ, act of psychic power

Then I performed an act of psychic power (tathārūpaṁ iddhābhisaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkhāsiṁ) such that Baka the Brahmā and the members of his assembly could hear my voice but could not see me. (MN i 330)

➥ abhisaṅkhārassa: (main article see: saṅkhāra)

Illustration: abhisaṅkhārassa, impulsion

The wheelwright set rolling (pavattesi) the wheel he had finished in six days. The wheel kept rolling as far as the impulsion took it (yāvatikā abhisaṅkhārassa gati tāvatikaṁ gantvā); then it circled round and round and fell to the ground. (AN i 112)